Since God not only created the world but also upholds it, we naturally pass from the doctrine of creation to that of divine providence. This may be defined as that work of God in which He preserves all His creatures, is active in all that happens in the world, and directs all things to their appointed end. It includes three elements, of which the first pertains primarily to the being, the second to the activity, and the third to the purpose of all things.

1. The Elements of Divine Providence. We distinguish three elements:

a. Divine preservation. This is that continuous work of God by which He upholds all things. While the world has a distinct existence and is not a part of God, it nevertheless has the ground of its continued existence in God and not in itself. It endures through a continued exercise of divine power by which all things are maintained in being and action. This doctrine is taught in the following passages:

Ps. 136:25; "Who giveth food to all flesh; For his lovingkindness [endureth] for ever. (Psalms 136:25)"

145:15; "The eyes of all wait for thee; And thou givest them their food in due season. (Psalms 145:15)"

Neh. 9:6; "Thou art Jehovah, even thou alone; thou hast made heaven, the heaven of heavens, with all their host, the earth and all things that are thereon, the seas and all that is in them, and thou preservest them all; and the host of heaven worshippeth thee. (Nehemiah 9:6)"

Acts 17:28; "for in him we live, and move, and have our being; as certain even of your own poets have said, For we are also his offspring. (Acts 17:28)"

Col. 1:17; "and he is before all things, and in him all things consist. (Colossians 1:17)"

Heb. 1:3. "who being the effulgence of his glory, and the very image of his substance, and upholding all things by the word of his power, when he had made purification of sins, sat down on the right hand of the Majesty on high; (Hebrews 1:3)"

b. Divine concurrence. This may be defined as that work of God by which He co-operates with all His creatures and causes them to act precisely as they do. It implies that there are real secondary causes in the world, such as the powers of nature and the will of man, and asserts that these do not work independently of God. God works in every act of His creatures, not only in their good but also in their evil acts. He stimulates them to action, accompanies their action at every moment, and makes this action effective. However, we should never think of God and man as equal causes; the former is the primary, and the latter only a secondary cause. Neither should we conceive of them as each doing a part of the work like a team of horses. The same deed is in its entirety both a deed of God and a deed of man. Moreover, we should guard against the idea that this co-operation makes God responsible for man's sinful deeds. This doctrine is based on Scripture,

Deut. 8:18; "But thou shalt remember Jehovah thy God, for it is he that giveth thee power to get wealth; that he may establish his covenant which he sware unto thy fathers, as at this day. (Deuteronomy 8:18)"

Ps. 104:20, 21, 30; "20 Thou makest darkness, and it is night, Wherein all the beasts of the forest creep forth. 21 The young lions roar after their prey, And seek their food from God. ...30 Thou sendest forth thy Spirit, they are created; And thou renewest the face of the ground. (Psalms 104:20-21,30)"

Amos 3:6; "Shall the trumpet be blown in a city, and the people not be afraid? shall evil befall a city, and Jehovah hath not done it? (Amos 3:6)"

Matt. 5:45; "that ye may be sons of your Father who is in heaven: for he maketh his sun to rise on the evil and the good, and sendeth rain on the just and the unjust. (Matthew 5:45)"

10:29; "Are not two sparrows sold for a penny? and not one of them shall fall on the ground without your Father: (Matthew 10:29)"

Acts 14:17; "And yet He left not himself without witness, in that he did good and gave you from heaven rains and fruitful seasons, filling your hearts with food and gladness. (Acts 14:17)"

Phil. 2:13. "for it is God who worketh in you both to will and to work, for his good pleasure. (Philippians 2:13)"

c. Divine government. This is the continued activity of God whereby He rules all things so that they answer to the purpose of their existence. God is represented as King of the universe both in the Old and in the New Testament. He adapts His rule to the nature of the creatures which He governs; His government of the physical world differs from that of the spiritual world. It is universal,

Ps. 103:19; "Jehovah hath established his throne in the heavens; And his kingdom ruleth over all. (Psalms 103:19)"

Dan. 4:34, 35, "34 And at the end of the days I, Nebuchadnezzar, lifted up mine eyes unto heaven, and mine understanding returned unto me, and I blessed the Most High, and I praised and honored him that liveth for ever; for his dominion is an everlasting dominion, and his kingdom from generation to generation. 35 And all the inhabitants of the earth are reputed as nothing; and he doeth according to his will in the army of heaven, and among the inhabitants of the earth; and none can stay his hand, or say unto him, What doest thou? (Daniel 4:34-35)"

includes the most insignificant things,

Matt. 10:29-31, "29 Are not two sparrows sold for a penny? and not one of them shall fall on the ground without your Father: 30 but the very hairs of your head are all numbered. 31 Fear not therefore: ye are of more value than many sparrows. (Matthew 10:29-30)"

and that which is seemingly accidental,

Prov. 16:33, "The lot is cast into the lap; But the whole disposing thereof is of Jehovah. (Proverbs 16:33)"

and bears on both the good and the evil deeds of man, Phil. 2:13; "for it is God who worketh in you both to will and to work, for his good pleasure. (Philippians 2:13)"

Gen. 50:20; "And as for you, ye meant evil against me; but God meant it for good, to bring to pass, as it is this day, to save much people alive. (Genesis 50:20)"

Acts 14:16. "who in the generations gone by suffered all the nations to walk in their own ways. (Acts 14:16)"

2. Misconceptions of Divine Providence. In the doctrine of providence we should guard against two misconceptions:

a. The Deistic conception. This is to the effect that God's concern with the world is of the most general nature. He created the world, established its laws, set it in motion, and then withdrew from it. He wound it up like a clock, and now lets it run off. It is only when something goes wrong that He interferes with its regular operation. God, is only a God afar off.

b. The Pantheistic conception. Pantheism does not recognize the distinction between God and the world. It identifies the two, and therefore leaves no room for providence in the proper sense of the word. There are, strictly speaking, no such things as secondary causes. God is the direct author of all that transpires in the world. Even the acts which we ascribe to man as really acts of God. God is only a God that is near, and not a God afar off.

3. Extraordinary Providences or Miracles. We distinguish between general and special providences, and among the latter the miracles occupy an important place. A miracle is a supernatural work of God, that is a work which is accomplished without the mediation of secondary causes. If God sometimes apparently uses secondary causes in the production of miracles, He employs them in an unusual way, so that the work Is after all supernatural. Some regard miracles as impossible, because they involve a violation of the laws of nature.

But this is a mistake. The so-called laws of nature merely represent God's usual method of working. And the fact that God generally works according to a definite order does not mean that He cannot depart from this order, and cannot without violating or disturbing it bring about unusual results. Even man can lift up his hand and throw a ball into the air in spite of the law of gravitation and without in any way disturbing its operation. Surely, this is not impossible for the omnipotent God. The miracles of the Bible are means of revelation.

Num. 16:28; "And Moses said, Hereby ye shall know that Jehovah hath sent me to do all these works; for [I have] not [done them] of mine own mind. (Numbers 16:28)"

Jer. 32:20; "who didst set signs and wonders in the land of Egypt, even unto this day, both in Israel and among [other] men; and madest thee a name, as at this day; (Jeremiah 32:20)"

John 2:11; "This beginning of his signs did Jesus in Cana of Galilee, and manifested his glory; and his disciples believed on him. (John 2:11)"

5:36. "But the witness which I have is greater than [that of] John; for the works which the Father hath given me to accomplish, the very works that I do, bear witness of me, that the Father hath sent me. (John 5:36)"

To memorize. Passages referring to:

a. Preservation:

Ps. 36:6b. "O Jehovah, thou preservest man and beast."

Neh. 9:6. "Thou art Jehovah, even thou alone; thou hast made heaven, the heaven of heavens, with all their host, the earth and all things that are thereon, the seas all that is in them, and thou preservest them all."

Col. 1:17. "And He is before all things, and in Him all things consist."

b. Concurrence.

Deut. 8:18a. "But thou shalt remember Jehovah thy God, for it is He that giveth thee power to get wealth."

Amos 3:6. "Shall the trumpet be blown in a city, and the people be not afraid? shall evil befall a city, and Jehovah hath not done it?"

Phil. 2:13. "For it is God who worketh in you both to will and to work, for His good pleasure."

c. Government.

Ps. 103:19. "Jehovah hath established His throne in the heavens; and His Kingdom ruleth over all."

Dan. 4:3b. "His kingdom is an everlasting kingdom, and His dominion is from generation to generation."

I Tim. 6:15. "Which in its own times He shall show, who is the blessed and only Potentate, the King of kings, and Lord of lords."

d. Miracles and their design:

Ex. 15:11. "Who is like unto Thee, O Jehovah, among the gods? Who is like Thee glorious in holiness, fearful in praises, doing wonders?"

Ps. 72:18. "Blessed be Jehovah God, the God of Israel, who alone doeth wondrous things."

Mark 2:10, 11. "But that ye may know that the Son of man hath power on earth to forgive sins, He saith to the sick of the palsy, I say unto thee, Arise, and take up thy bed, and go thy wan into thy house."

John 2:11. "This beginning of miracles did Jesus in Cana of Galilee, and manifested forth His glory; and His disciples believed on Him."

For Further Study:

a. Name some examples of special providences.

Cf. Deut. 2:7; "For Jehovah thy God hath blessed thee in all the work of thy hand; he hath known thy walking through this great wilderness: these forty years Jehovah thy God hath been with thee; thou hast lacked nothing. (Deuteronomy 2:7)"

I Kings 17:6, 16; "6 And the ravens brought him bread and flesh in the morning, and bread and flesh in the evening; and he drank of the brook. ...16 The jar of meal wasted not, neither did the cruse of oil fail, according to the word of Jehovah, which he spake by Elijah. (1 Kings 17:6,16)"

II Kings 4:6; "And it came to pass, when the vessels were full, that she said unto her son, Bring me yet a vessel. And he said unto her, There is not a vessel more. And the oil stayed. (2 Kings 4:6)"

Matt. 14:20. "And they all ate, and were filled: and they took up that which remained over of the broken pieces, twelve baskets full. (Matthew 14:20)"

b. How should belief in divine providence affect our cares?

Isa. 41:10; "Fear thou not, for I am with thee; be not dismayed, for I am thy God; I will strengthen thee; yea, I will help thee; yea, I will uphold thee with the right hand of my righteousness. (Isaiah 41:10)"

Matt. 6:32; "For after all these things do the Gentiles seek; for your heavenly Father knoweth that ye have need of all these things. (Matthew 6:32)"

Luke 12:7; "But the very hairs of your head are all numbered. Fear not: ye are of more value than many sparrows. (Luke 12:7)"

Phil. 4:6, 7; "6 In nothing be anxious; but in everything by prayer and supplication with thanksgiving let your requests be made known unto God. 7 And the peace of God, which passeth all understanding, shall guard your hearts and your thoughts in Christ Jesus. (Philippians 4:6-7)"

I Pet. 5:7. "casting all your anxiety upon him, because he careth for you. (1 Peter 5:7)"

c. Name some of the blessings of providence.

Cf. Isa. 25:4; "For thou hast been a stronghold to the poor, a stronghold to the needy in his distress, a refuge from the storm, a shade from the heat, when the blast of the terrible ones is as a storm against the wall. (Isaiah 25:4)"

Ps. 121:4; "Behold, he that keepeth Israel Will neither slumber nor sleep. (Psalms 121:4)"

Luke 12:7; "But the very hairs of your head are all numbered. Fear not: ye are of more value than many sparrows. (Luke 12:7)"

Deut. 33:27; "The eternal God is [thy] dwelling-place, And underneath are the everlasting arms. (Deuteronomy 33:27a)"

Ps. 37:28; "For Jehovah loveth justice, And forsaketh not his saints; They are preserved for ever: But the seed of the wicked shall be cut off. (Psalms 37:28)"

II Tim. 4:18. "The Lord will deliver me from every evil work, and will save me unto his heavenly kingdom: to whom [be] the glory forever and ever. Amen. (2 Timothy 4:18)"

Questions for Review

1. How is the doctrine of providence related to that of creations?

2. What is divine providence?

3. What is the difference between general and special providence?

4. What are the objects of divine providence?

5. What are the three elements of providence, and how do they differ?

6. How must we conceive of the divine concurrence?

7. How far does the divine government extend?

8. What is a miracle, and what purpose do the scriptural miracles serve?

9. Why do some consider miracles impossible?

From the discussion of the doctrine of God we pass on to that of man, the crown of God's handiwork.

1. The Essential Elements of Human Nature.

The usual view is that man consists of two parts, body and soul. This is in harmony with the self-consciousness of man, and is also borne out by a study of Scripture, which speaks of man as consisting of "body and soul,"

Matt. 6:25; "Therefore I say unto you, be not anxious for your life, what ye shall eat, or what ye shall drink; nor yet for your body, what ye shall put on. Is not the life more than the food, and the body than the raiment? (Matthew 6:25)"

10:28, "And be not afraid of them that kill the body, but are not able to kill the soul: but rather fear him who is able to destroy both soul and body in hell. (Matthew 10:28)"

or of "body and spirit,"

Eccl. 12:7; "and the dust returneth to the earth as it was, and the spirit returneth unto God who gave it. (Ecclesiastes 12:7)"

I Cor. 5:3,5. "3 For I verily, being absent in body but present in spirit, have already as though I were present judged him that hath so wrought this thing,...5 to deliver such a one unto Satan for the destruction of the flesh, that the spirit may be saved in the day of the Lord Jesus. (1 Corinthians 5:3,5)"

Some are of the opinion that the words 'soul' and 'spirit' denote different elements, and that therefore man consists of three parts, body, soul, and spirit,

Cf. I Thess. 5:23. "And the God of peace himself sanctify you wholly; and may your spirit and soul and body be preserved entire, without blame at the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ. (1 Thessalonians 5:23)"

It is evident, however, that the two words 'soul' and 'spirit' are used interchangeably. Death is sometimes described as a giving up of the soul,

Gen. 35:18; "And it came to pass, as her soul was departing (for she died), that she called his name Ben-oni: but his father called him Benjamin. (Genesis 35:18)"

I Kings 17:21, "And he stretched himself upon the child three times, and cried unto Jehovah, and said, O Jehovah my God, I pray thee, let this child's soul come into him again. (1 Kings 17:21)"

and sometimes as the giving up of the spirit,

Luke 23:46; "And Jesus, crying with a loud voice, said, Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit: and having said this, he gave up the ghost. (Luke 23:46)"

Acts 7:59. "And they stoned Stephen, calling upon [the Lord], and saying, Lord Jesus, receive my spirit. (Acts 7:59)"

The dead are in some cases named "souls,"

Rev. 9:6; "And in those days men shall seek death, and shall in no wise find it; and they shall desire to die, and death fleeth from them. (Revelation 9:6)"

20:4, "And I saw thrones, and they sat upon them, and judgment was given unto them: and [I saw] the souls of them that had been beheaded for the testimony of Jesus, and for the word of God, and such as worshipped not the beast, neither his image, and received not the mark upon their forehead and upon their hand; and they lived, and reigned with Christ a thousand years. (Revelation 20:4)"

and in others 'spirits,'

I Pet 3:19; "in which also he went and preached unto the spirits in prison, (1 Peter 3:19)"

Heb. 12:23. "to the general assembly and church of the firstborn who are enrolled in heaven, and to God the Judge of all, and to the spirits of just men made perfect, (Hebrews 12:23)"

The two terms denote the spiritual element in man from different points of view. As spirit it is the principle of life and action, which controls the body, and as soul it is the personal subject, which thinks and feels and wills, and in some cases the seat of the affections.

2. The Origin of the Soul in Each Individual.

There are three views respecting the origin of the individual souls.

a. Pre-existentialism. Some advocated the idea that the souls of men existed in a previous state, and that something that happened then accounts for their present condition. A few found in this an explanation of the fact that man is born as a sinner. This view finds no favor now.

b. Traducianism. According to this View men derive their souls as well as their bodies from their parents. This is the common view in the Lutheran Church. Support for it is found in the fact that nothing is said about the creation of Eve's soul, and that descendants are said to be in the loins of their Fathers,

Gen. 46:26; "All the souls that came with Jacob into Egypt, that came out of his loins, besides Jacob's sons' wives, all the souls were threescore and six; (Genesis 46:26)"

Heb. 7:9, 10. "9 And, so to say, through Abraham even Levi, who receiveth tithes, hath paid tithes; 10 for he was yet in the loins of his father, when Melchizedek met him. (Hebrews 7:9-10)"

Furthermore, it seems to be favored by the fact that in the case of animals both body and soul are passed on from the old to the young, by the inheritance of family traits and peculiarities, and by the inheritance of sinful corruption, which is a matter of the soul more than of the body. However, it is burdened with serious difficulties. It either makes the parents creators, or assumes that the soul of man can be divided into various parts. Moreover, it endangers the sinlessness of Jesus.

c. Creationism. This holds that each soul is a direct creation of God, of which the time cannot be precisely determined. The soul is supposed to be created pure, but to become sinful even before birth by entering into that complex of sin by which humanity as a whole is burdened. This view is common in Reformed circles. It is favored by the fact that Scripture represents the body and the soul of man as having different origins,

Eccl. 12:7; "and the dust returneth to the earth as it was, and the spirit returneth unto God who gave it. (Ecclesiastes 12:7)"

Isa. 42:5; "Thus saith God Jehovah, he that created the heavens, and stretched them forth; he that spread abroad the earth and that which cometh out of it; he that giveth breath unto the people upon it, and spirit to them that walk therein: (Isaiah 42:5)"

Zech. 12:1; "The burden of the word of Jehovah concerning Israel. [Thus] saith Jehovah, who stretcheth forth the heavens, and layeth the foundation of the earth, and formeth the spirit of man within him: (Zechariah 12:1)"

Heb. 12:9. "Furthermore, we had the fathers of our flesh to chasten us, and we gave them reverence: shall we not much rather be in subjection unto the Father of spirits, and live? (Hebrews 12:9)"

Moreover, it is more in harmony with the spiritual nature of the soul, and safeguards the sinlessness of Jesus. It is not free from difficulties, however. It does not explain the inheritance of family traits, and may seem to make God the Creator of sinful souls.

3. Man as the Image of God.

The Bible teaches that man is created in the image of God. According to

Gen. 1:26, God said, "Let us make man in our image, after our likeness." The two words 'image' and 'likeness' evidently denote the same thing. The following passages show that they are used interchangeably:

Gen. 1:26, 27; "26 And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the heavens, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. 27 And God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them. (Genesis 1:26-27)"

5:1; "This is the book of the generations of Adam. In the day that God created man, in the likeness of God made he him; (Genesis 5:1)"

9:6; "Whoso sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed: For in the image of God made he man. (Genesis 9:6)"

I Cor. 11:7; "For a man indeed ought not to have his head veiled, forasmuch as he is the image and glory of God: but the woman is the glory of the man. (1 Corinthians 11:7)"

Col. 3:10; "and have put on the new man, that is being renewed unto knowledge after the image of him that created him: (Colossians 3:10)"

Jas. 3:9. "Therewith bless we the Lord and Father; and therewith curse we men, who are made after the likeness of God: (James 3:9)"

The word 'likeness' probably stresses the fact that the image is most like or very similar. There are different views of the image of God in man:

a. The Roman Catholic view:. Roman Catholics find the image of God in certain natural gifts with which man is endowed, such as the spirituality of the soul, the freedom of the will, and immortality. To these God added a supernatural gift, called original righteousness, to keep the lower nature in check. This is supposed to constitute man's likeness to God.

b. The Lutheran view. The Lutherans are not all agreed on this point, but the prevailing opinion is that the image of God consists only in those spiritual qualities with which man was endowed at creation, namely, true knowledge, righteousness, and holiness. These may be designated original righteousness. This view is too restricted.

c. The Reformed view. The Reformed distinguish between the natural and the moral image of God. The former is the broader of the two, and is generally said to consist in man's spiritual, rational, moral, and immortal being. This was obscured but not lost by sin. The latter is the image of God in the more restricted sense, and consists in true knowledge, righteousness, and holiness. This was lost by sin and is restored in Christ,

Eph. 4:24; "and put on the new man, that after God hath been created in righteousness and holiness of truth. (Ephesians 4:24)"

Col. 3:10.

Since man retained the image in the broader sense, he can still be called the image or image-bearer of God,

Gen. 9:6; I Cor. 11:7; 15:49; "And as we have borne the image of the earthy, we shall also bear the image of the heavenly. (1 Corinthians 15:49)"

Jas 3:9.

4. Man in the Covenant of Works.

God at once entered into covenant relationship with man. This original covenant is called the covenant of works.

a. Scripture proof for the covenant of works.

(1) Paul draws a parallel between Adam and Christ in

Rom. 5:12-21. In Adam all men died, but in Christ all those who are His are made alive. This means that Adam was the representative head of all men, just as Christ is now the representative head of all those who are His. "(Romans 5:12-21) 12 Therefore, as through one man sin entered into the world, and death through sin; and so death passed unto all men, for that all sinned:-- 13 for until the law sin was in the world; but sin is not imputed when there is no law. 14 Nevertheless death reigned from Adam until Moses, even over them that had not sinned after the likeness of Adam's transgression, who is a figure of him that was to come. 15 But not as the trespass, so also [is] the free gift. For if by the trespass of the one the many died, much more did the grace of God, and the gift by the grace of the one man, Jesus Christ, abound unto the many. 16 And not as through one that sinned, [so] is the gift: for the judgment [came] of one unto condemnation, but the free gift [came] of many trespasses unto justification. 17 For if, by the trespass of the one, death reigned through the one; much more shall they that receive the abundance of grace and of the gift of righteousness reign in life through the one, [even] Jesus Christ. 18 So then as through one trespass [the judgment came] unto all men to condemnation; even so through one act of righteousness [the free gift came] unto all men to justification of life. 19 For as through the one man's disobedience the many were made sinners, even so through the obedience of the one shall the many be made righteous. 20 And the law came in besides, that the trespass might abound; but where sin abounded, grace did abound more exceedingly: 21 that, as sin reigned in death, even so might grace reign through righteousness unto eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord."

(2) In Hos. 6:7 we read: "But they like Adam have transgressed the covenant" (Am. Rev.). Adam's sin is called a transgression of the covenant.

b. The elements of the covenant of works.

(1) The parties. A covenant is always a compact between two parties. In this case they are the triune God, the sovereign Lord of the universe, and Adam as the representative of the human race. Since these parties are very unequal, the covenant naturally partakes of the nature of an arrangement imposed on man.

(2) The promise. The promise of the covenant was the promise of life in the highest sense, life raised above the possibility of death. This is what believers now receive through Christ, the last Adam.

(3) The condition. The condition was that of absolute obedience. The positive command not to eat of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil was clearly a test of pure obedience.

(4) The penalty. The penalty was death in the most inclusive sense of the word, physical, spiritual, and eternal. This consists not only in the separation of body and soul, but more fundamentally in the separation of the soul from God.

(5) The sacrament(s). In all probability the tree of life was the only sacrament of this covenant,-- if it was indeed a sacrament. It seems to have been appointed as a symbol and seal of life.

c. The present validity of the covenant of works. Arminians hold that this covenant was wholly set aside. But this is not correct. The demand of perfect obedience still stands for those who do not accept the righteousness of Christ.

Lev. 18:5; "Ye shall therefore keep my statutes, and mine ordinances; which if a man do, he shall live in them: I am Jehovah. (Leviticus 18:5)"

Gal. 3:12. "and the law is not of faith; but, He that doeth them shall live in them. (Galatians 3:12)"

Though they cannot meet the requirement, the condition stands. It holds no more, however, for those who are in Christ, since He met the demands of the law for them. It ceased to be a way of life, for as such it is powerless after the fall.

To memorize. Passages bearing on:

a. The elements of human nature:

Matt. 10:28. "And be not afraid of them that kill the body, but are not able to kill the soul: but rather fear him who is able to destroy both body and soul in hell."

Rom. 8:10. "And if Christ is in you, the body is dead because of sin; but the spirit is life because of righteousness."

b. The creation of the soul:

Eccl. 12:7. "And the dust returneth to the earth as it was, and the spirit returneth unto God who gave it."

Heb. 12:9. "Furthermore, we had the fathers of our flesh to chasten us, and we gave them reverence: shall we not much rather be in subjection to the Father of spirits, and live?"

c. Man's creation in the image of God:

Gen. 1:27. "And God created man in His own image, in the image of God created He him; male and female created He them."

Gen. 9:6. "Whoso sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed; for in the image of God made He man."

d. Man in general even now the image of God:

Gen. 9:6. Cf. above under c.

Jas. 3:9. "Therewith bless we the Lord and Father; and therewith curse we men, who are made in the likeness of God."

e. The restoration of the image of God in man:

Eph. 4:24. "And put on the new man, that after God hath been created in righteousness and holiness of truth."

Col. 3:10. "And have put on the new man, that is being renewed unto knowledge after the image of Him that created him."

f. The covenant of works:

Hos. 6:7. "But they like Adam have transgressed the covenant."

I Cor. 15:22. "For as in Adam all die, so also in Christ shall all be made alive."

For Further Study:

a. How would you explain the passages which seem to imply that man consists of three elements,

I Thess. 5:23; "And the God of peace himself sanctify you wholly; and may your spirit and soul and body be preserved entire, without blame at the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ. (1 Thessalonians 5:23)"

Heb. 4:12; "For the word of God is living, and active, and sharper than any two-edged sword, and piercing even to the dividing of soul and spirit, of both joints and marrow, and quick to discern the thoughts and intents of the heart. (Hebrews 4:12)"

compare

Matt. 22:37. "And he said unto him, Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind. (Matthew 22:37)"

b. Does man's dominion over the rest of creation also form part of the image of God?

Gen. 1:26, 28; "26 And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the heavens, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth. ...28 And God blessed them: and God said unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the heavens, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth. (Genesis 1:26-28)"

Ps. 8:6-8; "6 Thou makest him to have dominion over the works of thy hands; Thou hast put all things under his feet: 7 All sheep and oxen, Yea, and the beasts of the field, 8 The birds of the heavens, and the fish of the sea, Whatsoever passeth through the paths of the seas. (Psalms 8:6-8)"

Heb. 2:5-9. "5 For not unto angels did he subject the world to come, whereof we speak. 6 But one hath somewhere testified, saying, What is man, that thou art mindful of him? Or the son of man, that thou visitest him? 7 Thou madest him a little lower than the angels; Thou crownedst him with glory and honor, And didst set him over the works of thy hands: 8 Thou didst put all things in subjection under his feet. For in that he subjected all things unto him, he left nothing that is not subject to him. But now we see not yet all things subjected to him. 9 But we behold him who hath been made a little lower than the angels, [even] Jesus, because of the suffering of death crowned with glory and honor, that by the grace of God he should taste of death for every [man]. (Hebrews 2:5-9)"

c. What indications of a covenant can you find in Gen. 2 and 3?

Questions for Review

1. What is the usual view of the elements of human nature, and how can this be proved?

2. What other view is there, and what passages seem to support it?

3. What different views are there as to the origin of the soul?

4. What are the arguments for, and the objections to each one of these?

5. Do the words 'image' and likeness denote different things?

6. What is the Roman Catholic, the Lutheran, and the Reformed view of the image of God in man?

7. What distinction do the Reformed make, and why is it important?

8. What Bible proof have we for the covenant of works?

9. Who are the parties in the covenants?

10. What is the promise, the condition, the penalty, and the sacrament of the covenants?

11. In what sense does this covenant still hold?

12. In what sense is it abolished?

1. The Origin of Sin.

The Bible teaches us that sin entered the world as the result of the transgression of Adam and Eve in paradise. The first sin was occasioned by the temptation of Satan in the form of a serpent, who sowed in man's heart the seeds of distrust and unbelief. Scripture clearly indicates that the serpent, who appears as the tempter in the story of the fall, was but an instrument of Satan,

John 8:44; "Ye are of [your] father the devil, and the lusts of your father it is your will to do. He was a murderer from the beginning, and standeth not in the truth, because there is no truth in him. When he speaketh a lie, he speaketh of his own: for he is a liar, and the father thereof. (John 8:44)"

Rom. 16:20; "And the God of peace shall bruise Satan under your feet shortly. The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you. (Romans 16:20)"

II Cor. 11:3; "But I fear, lest by any means, as the serpent beguiled Eve in his craftiness, your minds should be corrupted from the simplicity and the purity that is toward Christ. (2 Corinthians 11:3)"

Rev. 12:9. "And the great dragon was cast down, the old serpent, he that is called the Devil and Satan, the deceiver of the whole world; he was cast down to the earth, and his angels were cast down with him. (Revelation 12:9)"

The first sin consisted in man's eating of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. This eating was sinful simply because God had forbidden it. It clearly showed that man was not willing to subject his will unconditionally to the will of God, and comprised several elements. In the intellect it revealed itself as unbelief and pride, in the will as the desire to be like God, and in the affections an unholy satisfaction in eating of the forbidden fruit. As a result of it man lost the image of God in the restricts sense, became guilty and utterly corrupt, and fell under the sway of death,

Gen. 3:19; "in the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread, till thou return unto the ground; for out of it wast thou taken: for dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return. (Genesis 3:19)"

Rom. 5:12; "Therefore, as through one man sin entered into the world, and death through sin; and so death passed unto all men, for that all sinned:-- (Romans 5:12)"

6:23. "For the wages of sin is death; but the free gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord. (Romans 6:23)"

2. The Essential Nature of Sin.

At present many substitute the word 'evil' for 'sin,' but this is a poor substitute, for the word 'sin' is far more specific. It denotes a kind of evil, namely, a moral evil for which man is responsible and which brings him under a sentence of condemnation. The modern tendency is to regard it merely as a wrong done to one's fellow-beings misses the point entirely, for such a wrong can be called sin only in so far as it is contrary to the will of God. Sin is correctly defined by Scripture as "lawlessness,"

I John 3:4. "Every one that doeth sin doeth also lawlessness; and sin is lawlessness. (1 John 3:4)"

It is lack of conformity to the law of God, and as such the opposite of that love which is required by the divine law. The Bible always contemplates it in relation to the law,

Rom. 1: 32; "who, knowing the ordinance of God, that they that practise such things are worthy of death, not only do the same, but also consent with them that practise them. (Romans 1:32)"

2:12-14; "12 For as many as have sinned without law shall also perish without the law: and as many as have sinned under the law shall be judged by the law; 13 for not the hearers of the law are just before God, but the doers of the law shall be justified: 14 (for when Gentiles that have not the law do by nature the things of the law, these, not having the law, are the law unto themselves; (Romans 2:12-14)"

4:15; "for the law worketh wrath; but where there is no law, neither is there transgression. (Romans 4:15)"

5:13; "for until the law sin was in the world; but sin is not imputed when there is no law. (Romans 5:13)"

Jas. 2:9, 10; "9 but if ye have respect of persons, ye commit sin, being convicted by the law as transgressors. 10 For whosoever shall keep the whole law, and yet stumble in one [point], he is become guilty of all. (James 2:9-10)"

I John 3:4. "Every one that doeth sin doeth also lawlessness; and sin is lawlessness. (1 John 3:4)"

It is first of all guilt, making men liable to punishment,

Rom. 3:19; "Now we know that what things soever the law saith, it speaketh to them that are under the law; that every mouth may be stopped, and all the world may be brought under the judgment of God: (Romans 3:19)"

5:18; "So then as through one trespass [the judgment came] unto all men to condemnation; even so through one act of righteousness [the free gift came] unto all men to justification of life. (Romans 5:18)"

Eph. 2:3, "among whom we also all once lived in the lust of our flesh, doing the desires of the flesh and of the mind, and were by nature children of wrath, even as the rest:-- (Ephesians 2:3)"

and then also inherent corruption or moral pollution. All men are guilty in Adam, and are therefore born with a corrupt nature.

Job 14:4; "Who can bring a clean thing out of an unclean? not one. (Job 14:4)"

Jer. 17:9; "The heart is deceitful above all things, and it is exceedingly corrupt: who can know it? (Jeremiah 17:9)"

Isa. 6:5; "Then said I, Woe is me! for I am undone; because I am a man of unclean lips, and I dwell in the midst of a people of unclean lips: for mine eyes have seen the King, Jehovah of hosts. (Isaiah 6:5)"

Rom. 8:5-8; "5 For they that are after the flesh mind the things of the flesh; but they that are after the Spirit the things of the Spirit. 6 For the mind of the flesh is death; but the mind of the Spirit is life and peace: 7 because the mind of the flesh is enmity against God; for it is not subject to the law of God, neither indeed can it be: 8 and they that are in the flesh cannot please God. (Romans 8:5-8)

Eph. 4:17-19. "17 This I say therefore, and testify in the Lord, that ye no longer walk as the Gentiles also walk, in the vanity of their mind, 18 being darkened in their understanding, alienated from the life of God, because of the ignorance that is in them, because of the hardening of their heart; 19 who being past feeling gave themselves up to lasciviousness, to work all uncleanness with greediness. (Ephesians 4:17-19)"

Sin has its seat in the heart of man, and from this center influences the intellect, the will, and the affections, in fact the whole man, and finds expression through the body.

Prov. 4:23; "Keep thy heart with all diligence; For out of it are the issues of life. (Proverbs 4:23)"

Jer. 17:9; Matt. 15:19, 20; "19 For out of the heart come forth evil thoughts, murders, adulteries, fornications, thefts, false witness, railings: 20 these are the things which defile the man; but to eat with unwashen hands defileth not the man. (Matthew 15:19-20)"

Luke 6:45; "The good man out of the good treasure of his heart bringeth forth that which is good; and the evil [man] out of the evil [treasure] bringeth forth that which is evil: for out of the abundance of the heart his mouth speaketh. (Luke 6:45)"

Heb. 3:12. "Take heed, brethren, lest haply there shall be in any one of you an evil heart of unbelief, in falling away from the living God: (Hebrews 3:12)"

In distinction from the Roman Catholics we maintain that it does not consist in outward acts only, but includes evil thoughts, affections, and intents of the heart.

Matt. 5:22, 28; "22 but I say unto you, that every one who is angry with his brother shall be in danger of the judgment; and whosoever shall say to his brother, Raca, shall be in danger of the council; and whosoever shall say, Thou fool, shall be in danger of the hell of fire. ... 28 but I say unto you, that every one that looketh on a woman to lust after her hath committed adultery with her already in his heart. (Matthew 5:22,28)"

Rom. 7:7; "What shall we say then? Is the law sin? God forbid. Howbeit, I had not known sin, except through the law: for I had not known coveting, except the law had said, Thou shalt not covet: (Romans 7:7)"

Gal. 5:17, 24. "17 For the flesh lusteth against the Spirit, and the Spirit against the flesh; for these are contrary the one to the other; that ye may not do the things that ye would. ...24 And they that are of Christ Jesus have crucified the flesh with the passions and the lusts thereof. (Galatians 5:17,24)"

3. Sin in the Life of the Human Race.

Three points deserve consideration here:

a. The connection between Adam's sin and that of his descendants. This has been explained in three different ways.

(1) The earliest explanation is called the realistic theory, which is to the effect that God originally created one general human nature, which in course of time divided into as many parts as there are human individuals. Adam possessed the whole of this general human nature; and through his sin it became guilty and polluted. Naturally, every individual part of it shares this guilt and pollution.

(2) In the days of the Reformation the representative theory came to the foreground. According to this view Adam stood in a twofold relation to his descendants: he was their natural head, and he was their representative as the head of the covenant. When he sinned as their representative, this sin was also imputed to them, and as a result they are all born in a corrupt state. This is our Reformed view.

(3) A third theory, not as well known, is that of mediate imputation. It holds that the guilt of Adam's sin is not directly placed to our account. His corruption is passed on to his descendants, and this makes them personally guilty. They are not corrupt because they are guilty in Adam, but guilty because they are corrupt.

b. Original and Actual Sin. We distinguish between original and actual sin. All men are born in a sinful state and condition, which is called original sin, and is the root of all the actual sins that are committed.

(1) Original sin. This includes both guilt and pollution. The guilt of Adam's sin is imputed to us. Because he sinned as our representative, we are guilty in him. Moreover, we also inherit his pollution, and now have a positive disposition toward sin. Man is by nature totally depraved. This does not mean that every man is as bad as he can be, but that sin has corrupted every part of his nature and rendered him unable to do any spiritual good. He may still do many praiseworthy things in relation to his fellow-beings, but even his best works are radically defective, because they are not prompted by love to God nor done in obedience to God. This total depravity and inability is denied by Pelagians, Arminians, and Modernists, but is clearly taught in Scripture,

Jer. 17:9; "The heart is deceitful above all things, and it is exceedingly corrupt: who can know it? (Jeremiah 17:9)"

John 5:42; "But I know you, that ye have not the love of God in yourselves. (John 5:42)"

6:44; "No man can come to me, except the Father that sent me draw him: and I will raise him up in the last day. (John 6:44)"

15:4, 5; "4 Abide in me, and I in you. As the branch cannot bear fruit of itself, except it abide in the vine; so neither can ye, except ye abide in me. 5 I am the vine, ye are the branches: He that abideth in me, and I in him, the same beareth much fruit: for apart from me ye can do nothing. (John 15:4-5)"

Rom. 7:18, 23, 24; "18 For I know that in me, that is, in my flesh, dwelleth no good thing: for to will is present with me, but to do that which is good [is] not. ...23 but I see a different law in my members, warring against the law of my mind, and bringing me into captivity under the law of sin which is in my members. 24 Wretched man that I am! who shall deliver me out of the body of this death? (Romans 7:18,23-24)"

8:7, 8; "7 because the mind of the flesh is enmity against God; for it is not subject to the law of God, neither indeed can it be: 8 and they that are in the flesh cannot please God. (Romans 8:7-8)"

I Cor. 2:14; "Now the natural man receiveth not the things of the Spirit of God: for they are foolishness unto him; and he cannot know them, because they are spiritually judged. (1 Corinthians 2:14)"

II Cor. 7:1; "Having therefore these promises, beloved, let us cleanse ourselves from all defilement of flesh and spirit, perfecting holiness in the fear of God. (2 Corinthians 7:1)"

Eph. 2:1-3; "1 And you [did he make alive,] when ye were dead through your trespasses and sins, 2 wherein ye once walked according to the course of this world, according to the prince of the powers of the air, of the spirit that now worketh in the sons of disobedience; 3 among whom we also all once lived in the lust of our flesh, doing the desires of the flesh and of the mind, and were by nature children of wrath, even as the rest:-- (Ephesians 2:1-3)"

4:18; "being darkened in their understanding, alienated from the life of God, because of the ignorance that is in them, because of the hardening of their heart; (Ephesians 4:18)"

II Tim. 3:2-4; "2 For men shall be lovers of self, lovers of money, boastful, haughty, railers, disobedient to parents, unthankful, unholy, 3 without natural affection, implacable, slanderers, without self-control, fierce, no lovers of good, 4 traitors, headstrong, puffed up, lovers of pleasure rather than lovers of God; (2 Timothy 3:2-4)"

Tit. 1:15; "To the pure all things are pure: but to them that are defiled and unbelieving nothing is pure; but both their mind and their conscience are defiled. (Titus 1:15)"

Heb. 11:6. "And without faith it is impossible to be well-pleasing [unto him]; for he that cometh to God must believe that he is, and [that] he is a rewarder of them that seek after him. (Hebrews 11:6)"

(2) Actual sin. The term 'actual sin' denotes not only sins consisting in outward acts, but also those conscious thoughts, desires, and decisions that proceed from original sin. They are the sins which the individual performs in distinction from his inherited nature and inclination. While original sin is one, actual sins are manifold. They may be sins of the inner life, such as pride, envy, hatred, sensual lusts, and evil desires; or sins of the outer life, such as deceit, theft, murder, adultery, and so on. Among these there is one unpardonable sin, namely, the sin of blasphemy against the Holy Spirit, after which a change of heart is impossible, and for which it is not necessary to pray,

Matt. 12:31, 32; "31 Therefore I say unto you, Every sin and blasphemy shall be forgiven unto men; but the blasphemy against the Spirit shall not be forgiven. 32 And whosoever shall speak a word against the Son of man, it shall be forgiven him; but whosoever shall speak against the Holy Spirit, it shall not be forgiven him, neither in this world, nor in that which is to come. (Matthew 12:31-32)"

Mark 3:28-30; "28 Verily I say unto you, All their sins shall be forgiven unto the sons of men, and their blasphemies wherewith soever they shall blaspheme: 29 but whosoever shall blaspheme against the Holy Spirit hath never forgiveness, but is guilty of an eternal sin: 30 because they said, He hath an unclean spirit. (Mark 3:28-30)"

Luke 12:10; "And every one who shall speak a word against the Son of man, it shall be forgiven him: but unto him that blasphemeth against the Holy Spirit it shall not be forgiven. (Luke 12:10)"

Heb. 6:4-6; "4 For as touching those who were once enlightened and tasted of the heavenly gift, and were made partakers of the Holy Spirit, 5 and tasted the good word of God, and the powers of the age to come, 6 and [then] fell away, it is impossible to renew them again unto repentance; seeing they crucify to themselves the Son of God afresh, and put him to an open shame. (Hebrews 6:4-6)"

10:26, 27; "26 For if we sin wilfully after that we have received the knowledge of the truth, there remaineth no more a sacrifice for sins, 27 but a certain fearful expectation of judgment, and a fierceness of fire which shall devour the adversaries. (Hebrews 10:26-27)"

I John 5:16. "If any man see his brother sinning a sin not unto death, he shall ask, and [God] will give him life for them that sin not unto death. There is a sin unto death: not concerning this do I say that he should make request. (1 John 5:16)"

c. The Universality of Sin. Scripture and experience both teach us that sin is universal. Even the Pelagians do not deny this, though they ascribe it to external conditions, such as a bad environment, evil examples, and a wrong kind of education.

There are passages in which the Bible directly asserts the universality of sin, such as

I Kings 8:46; "If they sin against thee (for there is no man that sinneth not), and thou be angry with them, and deliver them to the enemy, so that they carry them away captive unto the land of the enemy, far off or near; (1 Kings 8:46)"

Ps. 143: 2; "And enter not into judgment with thy servant; For in thy sight no man living is righteous. (Psalms 143:2)"

Prov. 20:9; "Who can say, I have made my heart clean, I am pure from my sin? (Proverbs 20:9)"

Eccl. 7:20; "Surely there is not a righteous man upon earth, that doeth good, and sinneth not. (Ecclesiastes 7:20)"

Rom. 3:1-12, 19, 23; "1 What advantage then hath the Jew? or what is the profit of circumcision? 2 Much every way: first of all, that they were intrusted with the oracles of God. 3 For what if some were without faith? shall their want of faith make of none effect the faithfulness of God? 4 God forbid: yea, let God be found true, but every man a liar; as it is written, That thou mightest be justified in thy words, And mightest prevail when thou comest into judgment. 5 But if our righteousness commendeth the righteousness of God, what shall we say? Is God unrighteous who visiteth with wrath? (I speak after the manner of men.) 6 God forbid: for then how shall God judge the world? 7 But if the truth of God through my lie abounded unto his glory, why am I also still judged as a sinner? 8 and why not (as we are slanderously reported, and as some affirm that we say), Let us do evil, that good may come? whose condemnation is just. 9 What then? are we better than they? No, in no wise: for we before laid to the charge both of Jews and Greeks, that they are all under sin; 10 as it is written, There is none righteous, no, not one; 11 There is none that understandeth, There is none that seeketh after God; 12 They have all turned aside, they are together become unprofitable; There is none that doeth good, no, not, so much as one: ... 19 Now we know that what things soever the law saith, it speaketh to them that are under the law; that every mouth may be stopped, and all the world may be brought under the judgment of God: ... 23 for all have sinned, and fall short of the glory of God; (Romans 3:1-12,19,23)"

Gal 3:22; "But the scriptures shut up all things under sin, that the promise by faith in Jesus Christ might be given to them that believe. (Galatians 3:22)"

Jas. 3:2; "For in many things we all stumble. If any stumbleth not in word, the same is a perfect man, able to bridle the whole body also. (James 3:2)"

I John 1:8, 10. "8 If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us. ...10 If we say that we have not sinned, we make him a liar, and his word is not in us. (1 John 1:8,10)

Moreover, it teaches that man is sinful from birth, so that this cannot be considered as the result of imitation,

Job 14:4; "Who can bring a clean thing out of an unclean? not one. (Job 14:4)"

Ps. 51:5; "Behold, I was brought forth in iniquity; And in sin did my mother conceive me. (Psalms 51:5)"

John 3:6. "That which is born of the flesh is flesh; and that which is born of the Spirit is spirit. (John 3:6)"

Even infants are considered sinful, for they are subject to death, which is the penalty for sin,

Rom. 5:12-14. All men are by nature under condemnation, and therefore need the redemption which is in Christ Jesus. Children are never made an exception to this rule. John 3:3, 5; "3 Jesus answered and said unto him, Verily, verily, I say unto thee, Except one be born anew, he cannot see the kingdom of God. ...5 Jesus answered, Verily, verily, I say unto thee, Except one be born of water and the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God! (John 3:3,5)"

Eph. 2:3; "among whom we also all once lived in the lust of our flesh, doing the desires of the flesh and of the mind, and were by nature children of wrath, even as the rest:-- (Ephesians 2:3)"

I John 5:12. "He that hath the Son hath the life; he that hath not the Son of God hath not the life. (1 John 5:12)"

To memorize. Passages to prove:

a. That sin is guilt:

Rom. 5:18. "So then as through one trespass the judgment came unto all men to condemnation; even so through one act of righteousness the free gift came unto all men to justification of life."

I John 3:4. "Every one that doeth sin doeth also lawlessness; and sin is lawlessness."

Eph. 2:3. "Among whom we also all once lived in the lusts of our flesh, doing the desires of the flesh and of the mind, and were by nature children of wrath, even as the rest."

b. That sin is pollution:

Jer. 17:9. "The heart is deceitful above all things, and it is exceedingly corrupt: who can know it?"

Rom. 7:18, "For I know that in me, that is in my flesh, dwelleth no good thing; for to will is present with me, but to do that which is good is not."

Rom. 8:5. "For they that are after the flesh mind the things of the flesh; but they that are after the Spirit the things of the Spirit."

c. That sin has its seat in the heart:

Jer. 17:9. Cf. above under b.

Matt. 15:19. "For out of the heart come forth evil thoughts murders, adulteries, fornications, thefts, false witness, railings."

Heb. 3:12. "Take heed, brethren, lest haply there shall be in any one of you an evil heart of unbelief, in falling away from the living God."

d. That Adam's guilt is imputed to us:

Rom. 5:12. "Through one man sin entered into the world, and death through sin; and so death passed unto all men, for that all sinned." Also verse 19. "For as through one man's disobedience the many were made sinners, even so through the obedience of the one shall the many be made righteous."

I Cor. 15:21, 22. "For since by man came death, by man came also the resurrection of the dead. For as in Adam all die, so also in Christ shall all be made alive."

e. That man is totally depraved:

Jer. 17:9; Rom. 7:18; "For I know that in me, that is, in my flesh, dwelleth no good thing: for to will is present with me, but to do that which is good [is] not. (Romans 7:18)"

8:5. Cf. under b. above.

g. That sin is universal:

I Kings 8:46. "For there is no man that sinneth not."

Ps. 143:2. "And enter not into judgment with thy servant; for in thy sight no living man is righteous."

Rom. 3:12. "They have all turned aside, they are become unprofitable; there is none that doeth good, no, not so much as one."

I John 1:8. "If we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us."

For Further Study:

a. Can you give some other scriptural names for sin?

Job 15:5; "For thine iniquity teacheth thy mouth, And thou choosest the tongue of the crafty. (Job 15:5)"

33:9; "I am clean, without transgression; I am innocent, neither is there iniquity in me: (Job 33:9)"

Ps. 32:1, 2; "1 Blessed is he whose transgression is forgiven, Whose sin is covered. 2 Blessed is the man unto whom Jehovah imputeth not iniquity, And in whose spirit there is no guile. (Psalms 32:1-2)"

55:15; "Let death come suddenly upon them, Let them go down alive into Sheol; For wickedness is in their dwelling, in the midst of them. (Psalms 55:15)"

Rom. 1:18; "For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men, who hinder the truth in unrighteousness; (Romans 1:18)"

5:15; "But not as the trespass, so also [is] the free gift. For if by the trespass of the one the many died, much more did the grace of God, and the gift by the grace of the one man, Jesus Christ, abound unto the many. (Romans 5:15)"

I John 3:4. "Every one that doeth sin doeth also lawlessness; and sin is lawlessness. (1 John 3:4)"

b. Does the word 'evil' ever mean anything else than sin in Scripture? If so, what?

Cf. Ex. 5:19; "And the officers of the children of Israel did see that they were in evil case, when it was said, Ye shall not diminish aught from your bricks, [your] daily tasks. (Exodus 5:19)"

II Kings 6:33; "And while he was yet talking with them, behold, the messenger came down unto him: and he said, Behold, this evil is of Jehovah; why should I wait for Jehovah any longer? (2 Kings 6:33)"

22:16; "Thus saith Jehovah, Behold, I will bring evil upon this place, and upon the inhabitants thereof, even all the words of the book which the king of Judah hath read. (2 Kings 22:16)"

Ps. 41:8; "An evil disease, [say they], cleaveth fast unto him; And now that he lieth he shall rise up no more. (Psalms 41:8)"

91:10; "There shall no evil befall thee, Neither shall any plague come nigh thy tent. (Psalms 91:10)"

Prov. 16:4. "Jehovah hath made everything for its own end; Yea, even the wicked for the day of evil. (Proverbs 16:4)"

c. Does the Bible explicitly teach that man is a sinner from birth?

Ps. 51:5; "Behold, I was brought forth in iniquity; And in sin did my mother conceive me. (Psalms 51:5)"

Isa. 48:8. "Yea, thou heardest not; yea, thou knewest not; yea, from of old thine ear was not opened: for I knew that thou didst deal very treacherously, and wast called a transgressor from the womb. (Isaiah 48:8)"

Questions for Review

1. What it the biblical view of the origin of sin?

2. What was the first sin, and what elements can be distinguished in it?

3. How would you prove that Satan was the real tempter?

4. What were the results of the first sin?

5. Do the words 'sin' and 'evil' mean the same Thing?

6. Where does sin have its seat in man?

7. Does sin consist only in outward acts?

8. What different views are there respecting the connection between Adam's sin and that of his descendants?

9. What is original sin, and how does actual sin differ from it?

10. How do you conceive of total depravity?

11. What proof is there for the universality of sin?